Leave me be in the wait-a-bit tree
I’ll be a little while
Perhaps another sunset I’ll see
Or I’ll hike another mile
I don’t feel quite ready to say goodbye
to evening strolls through dunes
To birds of acacias, grassland, and sky
Or to nights washed with light from the moon
Give me one last look at the endless plains
One more morning cup of tea
Perhaps I’ll stay for next season’s rains
or see a cheetah, maybe
I’d like to stay here, with my hair caught in thorns
Until I can tell fossils apart
Watching gazelles bound with spiraling horns
But our journey home must now start
“African savannahs contain some of the most iconic and charismatic species of animals on Earth, yet they face a great number of threats. What personal observations did you make about how these animals live in the wild and how they co-exit with local people?”
It would be next to impossible to list all of the observations I made about how Tanzanian fauna live in the wild, given that I filled a seventy page notebook with it and was constantly surrounded by critters large and small making their way through the world – from the lions feasting on the buffalo carcass to the spider that always existed and always will exist in the bathroom at Olduvai. That said, there are some common, overarching themes. These animals all need true same things – food, water, safety, and the ability to reproduce – all in different ways. They all have their own unique way of obtaining what they need so that their lifestyles, their niches, do not overlap so that they may coexist. A giraffe browses the highest branches of the acacia, while a tiny dikdik will browse the lowest foliage. All animals need water, but some have evolved adaptations that allow them to survive with less of it – an elephant drinks bathtubs of water, while desert oryxes can survive for a very, very long time without drinking. These animals are all specialized to specific environments where they can thrive, so much so that their presence in the fossil record is an indication of the environment at that time. One of the most notable aspects of the observations I made on these animals in the wild is the degree to which they interact with one another. It was certainly an unforgettable sight to see cattle egrets hitching a ride on the backs of the water buffalo, swooping down occasionally to peck at the insects disturbed by the buffalo’s presence. The great mixed herds we saw in the Serengeti and Ngorongoro were also an unforgettable sight, with huge numbers of gazelle, zebra, wildebeest and occasionally impalas or giraffes or ostriches nearby. These animals, though distinct from one another, will band together to exploit a common food-rich space and provide each other safety in numbers, coexisting peacefully for the most part. Some animals in the wild in Tanzania are very communal like that, highly social – like termites, or elephant families, or lion prides. They rely on their social connections to find food, obtain safety, and survive at the most basic level. Other animals exist alone, like the old male Cape buffalo we saw who exiled himself due to his age, or the lilac-breasted rollers who hunt alone from a high vantage point, the massive bull elephants wandering the savannah, or the jackals we saw in the tall grass at night. In short, all of these animals have unique ways of life, but all of those lifestyles depend on the same basic resources and interactions with other species in a highly specific environment. What was really fascinating to learn about was how the local wildlife interacts with local people, especially the pastoralist Maasai communities. We often assume that the only interactions between humans and wildlife are negative ones, and this is by and large true in Africa – many animals require vast territorities and swaths of grassland that is all too often fragmented or developed. Other keystone species are systematically hunted, either for parts or in response to negative interactions with livestock. Something Dr. Prendergast mentioned that stood out to me, though, was how large parts of the Serengeti are only as fertile as they are today because of the past pastoral activity on the plains. Where humans have lived before in traditional fashion leaves behind nutrient hotspots from the droppings of livestock, which can dramatically alter a landscape. We observed in many areas how local Maasai graze their herds on the same grass, even alongside native ungulates. The question of who can live where in regards to conservation is a contentious one in East Africa – native ecosystems must be protected, for the good of the planet and the local ecosystems, but that can and should be done in collaboration with local peoples, especially those whose traditional lifestyles are not necessarily bad for local wildlife at all.
“What observations did you make about how the environment – including local geology, geography, and climate – influences wildlife?”
Environment is the biggest component of wildlife distribution. The seasonality of the rains drives grass growth, which in turn drives the great migration of ungulates across the larger Serengeti ecosystem who follow the green grass. Other animals are extremely specifically distributed in response to water proximity – those that require large amounts of water, like Reduncini and Bovini bovids, hippos, elephants, and water birds will only be found near water sources. We actually saw this in the Serengeti! The microhabitat of the area just around a pond or river had vastly different vegetation and housed a different mix of fauna from neighboring drier grassland. Water proximity in the Serengeti ecosystem is certainly a noticeable example, but a larger one was the gradient of species we observed on our journey west: we started in Tarangire on the Eastern side of the Rift, then crossed the Eastern Escarpment and the Ngorongoro crater west into the Olduvai area and the Serengeti. I noticed that only the Easternmost area, the Tarangire, had baobab trees, which in turn attract elephants who eat the tree’s bark. We were taught how large fauna, like giraffes and elephants, have a very difficult time climbing the walls of the Crater or the Escarpment, which can have implications on the genetic divide between populations found on opposing sides of the geological barriers. Soil is also a huge factor in environmental driven wildlife distribution! In the Ngorongoro area we noticed the fertile, iron-rich, red volcanic soil used for growing crops in the region. This soil (and the rain shadow of the crater) created a lush environment where forests predominate and forest-dwelling critters – like monkeys, for instance – can thrive. Elevation is also a big determinate of distribution. Climbing the crater’s walls in the landcruiser, we noticed how it got colder and wetter as we gained elevation. Grassland became trees, trees had moss and vines, and then we leveled off above the tree level in a misty, lush grassland at the crater rim. Each of these habitats hosted different faunal assemblages, such as the diversity of waterbirds and huge zebra herds on the rim that could not be found just a few meters downslope. There are also human-made geographical barriers that influence fauna. For example, the borders between Tanzania and Kenya cuts across the natural border of the Serengeti ecosystem, meaning that a part of the Serengeti – the Maasai Mara – is subject to different management laws and regulations, which impacts what species are found there. Within Tanzania, different areas have different conservation designations. For example, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area (which includes Olduvai) has many people and communities within it, mostly Maasai pastoral communities, that live alongside wildlife and impact the environment. The Serengeti, a national park, does not allow communities to live inside of it. There is actually a very clear border – the plains in the Serengeti appear golden-white because the grass is very long, while the plains of Ngorongoro are largely close-cropped due to shared grazing between wildlife and domestic livestock. This has implications for natural fire, wildlife distribution, and soil fertility.
“Combining your observations of living species and your understanding of the paleoenvironment, what conclusions can you make about the role of environment in shaping ecological communities, particularly in East Africa?”
Through Dr. Manuel’s instruction and all of our presentations we were given a great many tools and options for reconstructing paleoenvironments based on a wide variety of evidence and clues. Many of these methods rely on the tendency of species to exist only in the environment they are adapted to and best suited for. For example, we used the assemblage of fossil teeth we found to reconstruct an environment based on our knowledge of how certain adaptations found in specific taxa correspond to specific environmental conditions: the hipsodont teeth with flat occlusal surfaces found in Alcelophini are reflective of the dry, dusty environments where they graze, or teeth we identified as crocodile reflect how their must have been water nearby because a crocodile is adapted to an aquatic lifestyle. My method, Community Structure Analysis, relies on the understanding that specific environments will produce specific proportions of taxa utilizing each niche (for example, a rainforest could be 50% arboreal, 30% terrestrial, and 20% aerial for mammals). Essentially, environment is one of the main drivers of shaping ecological communities anywhere in the world (the others being human influence and competition within and between species). Environmental conditions such as climate, vegetation, elevation, and soil type determines which species can survive in which area, and those assemblages in turn determine which species are interacting with one another which further influences distribution and communities.
“How has human history been shaped by the environment, and how can understanding that environment – including the ways in which it has changed – help us understand our origins as a species?”
Human history is defined by the savannah and the faunal assemblages that live there. The open grassland, predator communities, and need for hunting/scavenging as a source of nutrition led to the development of bipedal locomotion and the ability to run long distances. Other apes are largely forest dwelling and rely on arboreal locomotion, but that way of life was left behind by the savannah-dwelling early hominids. The large ungulate fauna and predator assemblages result in massive carcasses that last a little longer than they would in a rainforest, leading to a nutrient source of the environment that humans could exploit – if they had the right tools, that is. Predator defense was an incentive for largely ground-dwelling hominids to live in large groups that worked together well. There are many more examples, but the million-year long story short is that we humans are a product of the savannah ecosystem we evolved in. Understanding that ecosystem is critical to understanding early hominid evolution because we were no different from other critters in that we are susceptible to the whims of natural selection imposed upon us by environmental factors. Understanding the environment that corresponds to the time and location where hominid evidence or remains are found is critical to understanding where they would have lived – did it have a water source? Lots of trees? Lots of animals? Understanding where they lived will help us understanding what resources they were exploiting, and how, what their needs were, how they were met, and more.
“Lastly, what did you think about the entire experience? How did the course compare with your expectations? What were your favorite- and least favorite – parts of the course? Describe three things that you learned in the course that you consider to be the most important or surprising.”
This experience was definitely the coolest and most adventurous thing I have ever done. I would describe myself as a nervous person with a lot of allergies who generally fears long flights and unfamiliar circumstances. But I am also a person who loves learning about wildlife and being in nature, a person who has read and watched and listened to so much about these iconic ecosystems, and a person who dabbles in paleontology. And I was just blown away by the entire experience. Yes, it was hard at times – I didn’t sleep for 56 straight hours getting to Tanzania, I waited in more security lines for more hours than I care to disclose, I inhaled enough dust to turn my snot brown, and I made friends with the Olduvai Toilet Spider. And yet, I also had the best time ever. I got to see wildlife I could only dream of. I saw 62 giraffes? At once?! I saw a whole lion pride eating a buffalo! I checked off more than 50 bird species, many of which I assumed I would never get to see! I made some incredible friends, learned three words of Swahili, drank SO much tea, saw the Milky Way from my tent, made friends with cats in Turkey, made friendship bracelets at the literal Olduvai Gorge, got to help out with an excavation?!! These are things I never thought I would get to do as long as I lived. This course taught me that there are so many advantages to stepping out of my comfort zone and experiencing new places, cultures, ecosystems, and soups. I became something of an expert traveler, and I didn’t even lose my passport! This course exceeded my expectations in every way. To be honest, I really did not think we were going to see half the wildlife we saw. Elephants? No way! Giraffes? Aren’t they endangered? And yet, there we were, not ten feet away from a lion pride (in the safety of our vehicles, of course). I also learned so much! Thanks to Dr. Solomon and my fellow travelers, I can identify so very many species and I am more well versed of the big pictures of ecology that tie these savanna ecosystems together. I am more aware of the complexities raised by conservation practices and how local people should be more involved, with their concerns and needs taken into account. And I learned a LOT about paleoanthropology, especially considering that I came into this course knowing very little about practical methods or anything more recent than the dinosaurs. My favorite parts of the course? Well, that is really really hard to decide. Knowing that it was all incredible, I would have to say:
- Ngorongoro Crater Safari – We just saw so much wildlife, in this gorgeous place that felt like what I imagine paradise to be
- Excavating at Olduvai – stone tools, rock, and fossils and such a cool experience!
- Serengeti Safari – what we saw was just amazing, and I particularly was fond of the tiny round birds hopping near our picnic area
- Exploring Istanbul!
- sunsets and night skies at Olduvai
My least favorite parts:
- Going through the gauntlet (the five or so rounds of security at the Istanbul airport, including a full body pat down)
- Trying to take a shower at night in Olduvai
- Shedding a single tear after not being able to sleep on bit on any flight
Three things that I consider the most Important or Surprising:
- The complexity of conservation regarding the residence of local peoples, particularly Maasai, in protected areas and how conservation should collaborate to ensure the needs of people and of wildlife are being met.
- The history that the Olduvai team has built over the years regarding how humans existed and evolved millions of years ago in East Africa, and the methods they used to do that.
- The sheer amount of amassed bird knowledge I have gained through this experience. I am a walking, talking, bird encyclopedia of the Serengeti ecosystem. I have ostriches to spare and secretary birds on the brain.
As I write this, I am in the Houston Airport about to board my flight back to Boston. My adventure has nearly come to a close, and I am so grateful I have been able to have this experience. Thank you so much Dr. Manuel, and Dr. Scott, and everyone at Rice and in Tanzania and Olduvai who put this trip together and accommodated us and taught us and fed us and got us from point A to B – I know it can’t have been easy to put a trip like this together, but this is truly an experience that I will treasure and carry with me for the rest of my life. Thank you, gentle readers, for accompanying me on this journey through 4prose, poetry, and photography. I hope you have enjoyed it all!
Thus concludes Caroline’s account of an adventure in Ecology and Paleoecology. Farewell, my good fellows, until the next adventure!
Me and the giraffes
Me and the fossils and my stone tool
Me and my bone buckets
Thank you lots to my fellow travelers for these photographs! Y’all’s are the best and made the trip a great experience!
